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  • Maillard reaction also known as non enzymatic

    2021-11-29

    Maillard reaction, also known as non-enzymatic browning reaction, is a complex chemical reaction between carbonyl groups of reducing sugars and free amino groups of amino acids, peptides, proteins or some other nitrogen containing compounds. Maillard reaction plays an important role in food industry and occurs during thermal processing or food storage. According to the compounds generated during Maillard reaction, the reaction process is divided into early, intermediate and final stages (Nursten, 2005). Among them, the intermediate and final stages can be characterized by fluorescence intensity and ultraviolet–visible absorption. Maillard reaction is affected by a variety of variables, such as temperature, reaction time, pH, substrate concentration, substrate type, and water activity (Caballero, Finglas, & Toldrá, 2016). It can be used as an important tool for acquiring valuable Maillard reaction products (MRPs) (Kanzler et al., 2016, Lee et al., 2016). Moreover, the Maillard reaction of glucose/fumonisin B1 was used to the reduction of mycotoxin-fumonisin B1 (Lu et al., 2002), implying that Maillard reaction might be applied to the reduction of harmful chemicals with amino groups. Considering that histamine has a free amino group (Fig. 1), it may be consumed by Maillard reaction theoretically. Nevertheless, the Maillard reaction between sugar and histamine has not been studied previously.
    Materials and methods
    Results and discussion
    Conclusions In conclusion, histamine was thermal stable when heated EPZ031686 alone, but could be reduced in the glucose/histamine Maillard reaction model. Percentage removal of histamine was affected by temperature, heating time, initial pH value, NaCl concentration, initial EPZ031686 concentration and initial histamine concentration. Noticeably, histamine could be almost eliminated under appropriate conditions in the glucose/histamine Maillard reaction model. The intermediate and final stages of the glucose/histamine Maillard reaction were characterized by fluorescence intensity and ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy. The results showed that MRPs of the intermediate stage formed within 0.25 h, but the browning pigments of the final stage formed after 0.5 h under the conditions analyzed in this study. Cytotoxicity assay indicated that the toxicity of glucose/histamine MRPs was significantly lower than that of histamine (P < 0.01). Furthermore, the glucose/histamine Maillard reaction significantly reduced histamine concentration in two commercial canned tuna samples (P < 0.05). Taken together, this study demonstrates that the glucose/histamine Maillard reaction has bright application prospect for histamine control in foods.
    Acknowledgments The work was supported by the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number LQ15C200008], the Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 31501573], and the Research Start-up Funding of Zhejiang Ocean University [grant numbers Q1442, Q1443].
    Introduction Diabetes mellitus can be considered a family of chronic metabolic disorders associated with a hyperglycemic status caused by either the loss of insulin production due to the destruction of beta pancreatic cells, decreased insulin sensitivity, or both [1], [2]. In 2014, the global prevalence of 8.3% has been estimated and by the end of 2030 this value is expected to increase by 55% [3], resulting in obvious devastating consequences for healthcare expenditure worldwide. All the antidiabetic drugs currently available, although effective in reducing the risk of acute complications, such as hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia [4], are not effective in reversing the progression of this chronic and degenerative disorder. Indeed, diabetic patients are still at a high risk to develop longstanding complications including cardiovascular disease, such as coronary artery disease, and microvascular diseases, including neuropathy, retinopathy and nephropathy. Therefore, a better understanding of the underlying pathophysiology should contribute to new effective therapeutic approaches. Among the different mediators proposed to contribute to the pathophysiology of diabetes, histamine involvement has always been controversial and considered almost marginal. However, several lines of evidence support the contribution of histamine to the diabetic milieu resulting from the persistent hyperglycemia. For instance, the advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) have been demonstrated to activate mast cells whose degranulation may contribute to a vicious cycle, ultimately resulting in a low-grade inflammation typical of chronic diseases such as diabetes [5]. Therefore, this review aims to revisit the concept of histamine in the pathophysiology of diabetes and, in particular, its complications.